What (or Who) Killed the Planets Big Mammals

Megafaunal extinctions refers to the documented die-off of large-bodied mammals (megafauna) from all over our planet at the end of the last ice age, at about the same time as the human colonization of the last, farthest-flung regions out of Africa. The mass extinctions were neither synchronous nor universal, and the reasons proffered by researchers for those extinctions include (but are not limited to) climate change and human intervention. Key Takeaways: Megafaunal Extinctions Megafaunal extinctions occur when a preponderance of large-bodied mammals seem to die off at the same time.There have been six megafaunal extinctions on our planet during the Late PleistoceneThe most recent fell between 18,000–11,000 years ago in South America, 30,000–14,000 in North America, and 50,000–32,000 years ago in Australia.  These periods occur when the continents were first inhabited by humans, and when climate changes were occurring.It seems likely that rather than being caused by a particular occurrence, all three things (megafaunal extinctions, human colonization, and climate change) acted together to bring environmental change to the continents.   The Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions occurred during the Last Glacial–Interglacial Transition (LGIT), essentially the last 130,000 years, and it affected mammals, birds, and reptiles. There have been other, much earlier mass extinctions, impacting animals and plants alike. The five largest mass extinction events in the past 500 million years (mya) occurred at the end of the Ordovician (443 ma), the Late Devonian (375–360 mya), the end of the Permian (252 mya), the end of the Triassic (201 mya) and the end of the Cretaceous (66 mya). Pleistocene Era Extinctions Before early modern humans left Africa to colonize the rest of the world, all of the continents were already populated by a large and diverse animal population, including our hominid cousins, Neanderthals, Denisovans, and Homo erectus. Animals with body weights greater than 100 pounds (45 kilograms), called megafauna, were abundant. Extinct elephant, horse, emu, wolves, hippos: the fauna varied with the continent, but most of them were plant-eaters, with few predator species. Almost all of these megafauna species are now extinct; almost all of the extinctions occurred around the time of the colonization of those regions by early modern humans. A replica statue of the extinct Mylodon ground sloth which inhabited the south of the Chilean and Argentinian Patagonia, inside a cave in the Torres del Paine national park which was home to the pre-historic creature. Germà ¡n Vogel / Getty Images Before migrating far from Africa, early modern humans and Neanderthals co-existed with megafauna in Africa and Eurasia for several tens of thousands of years. At the time, most of the planet was in steppe or grassland ecosystems, maintained by megaherbivores, massive vegetarians that impeded the colonization of trees, trampled and consumed saplings, and cleared and broke down the organic matter. Seasonal aridity influenced the availability of rangelands, and climate change involving increases in moisture is documented for the late Pleistocene, which is believed to have exerted extinction pressure on megafaunal rangeland grazers by altering, fragmenting and in some cases replacing the steppes with forests. Climate change, migration of humans, extinction of megafauna: which came first? Which Came first? Despite what you may have read, it is not clear which of these forces—climate change, human migration, and megafaunal extinctions—caused the others, and it is very likely that the three forces worked together to re-sculpt the planet. When our earth became colder, the vegetation changed, and animals that did not adapt rapidly died out. Climate change may well have driven human migrations. People moving into new territories as new predators might have had negative effects on the existing fauna, through overkill of a particularly easy animal prey, or the spread of new diseases. But it must be remembered that the loss of the mega-herbivores also drove climate change. Enclosure studies have shown that large-bodied mammals such as elephants suppress woody vegetation, accounting for 80% of woody plant loss. The loss of large numbers of browsing, grazing, and grass-eating mega-mammals certainly led or added to the decrease of open vegetation and habitat mosaics, the increased occurrence of fire, and the decline of co-evolved plants. Long-term effects on seed dispersion continue to affect plant species distributions for thousands of years. This co-occurrence of humans in migration, climate change, and animal die-off is the most recent time in our human history where climate change and human interactions together re-designed the living palette of our planet. Two areas of our planet are the primary focus of the studies of Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions: North America and Australia, with some studies continuing in South America and Eurasia. All of these areas were subject to massive changes in temperature, including the variable presence of glacial ice, and plant and animal life; each sustained the arrival of a new predator in the food chain; each saw related decreases and reconfiguration of the available animal and plants. Evidence collected by archaeologists and paleontologists in each of the areas tells a slightly different story. North America Earliest human colonization: 15,000 calendar years ago (cal BP), (pre-Clovis sites)Last glacial maximum: ~30,000–14,000 cal BPYounger Dryas: 12,900–11,550 cal BPImportant sites: Rancho La Brea (California, USA), many Clovis and pre-Clovis sites.Die-off range: 15% disappeared during Clovis and the Younger Dryas overlap, 13.8–11.4 cal BPSpecies: ~35, 72% of megafauna, including dire wolf (Canis dirus), coyotes (C. latrans), and saber-toothed cats (Smilodon fatalis); American lion, short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), scimitar-tooth sabercat (Homotherium serum), and dhole (Cuon alpinus) While the exact date is still under discussion, it is most likely that humans first arrived in North America no later than about 15,000 years ago, and perhaps as long ago as 20,000 years ago, at the end of the last glacial maximum, when entrance into the Americas from Beringia became feasible. The North and South American continents were rapidly colonized, with populations settled in Chile by 14,500, surely within a few hundred years of the first entry into the Americas. North America lost about 35 genera of mostly large animals during the Late Pleistocene, accounting for perhaps 50% of all mammal species larger than 70 lbs (32 kg), and all species larger than 2,200 lbs (1,000 kg). The ground sloth, American lion, dire wolf, and short-faced bear, wooly mammoth, mastodon and Glyptotherium (a large bodied armadillo) all disappeared. At the same time, 19 genera of birds disappeared; and some animals and birds made radical changes in their habitats, permanently changing their migration patterns. Based on pollen studies, plant distributions also saw a radical change primarily between 13,000 to 10,000 calendar years ago (cal BP). Between 15,000 and 10,000 years ago, biomass burning gradually increased, particularly at the movements of rapid climate change at 13.9, 13.2, and 11.7 thousand years ago. These changes are not currently identified with specific changes in human population density or with the timing of the megafaunal extinction, but that doesnt necessarily mean that they are unrelated—the effects of the loss of large-bodied mammals on vegetation are very long-lasting. Australian Evidence Earliest human colonization: 45,000–50,000 cal BPImportant sites: Darling Downs, Kings Creek, Lynchs Crater (all in Queensland); Mt Cripps and Mowbray Swamp (Tasmania), Cuddie Springs and Lake Mungo (New South Wales)Die-off range: 122,000–7,000 years ago; at least 14 Mammalian genera and 88 species between 50,000–32,000 cal BPSpecies: Procoptodon (giant short-faced kangaroo), Genyornis newtoni, Zygomaturus, Protemnodon, sthenurine kangaroos and T. carnifex In Australia, several studies of megafaunal extinctions have been conducted of late, but the results of them are contradictory and conclusions must be considered controversial today. One difficulty with the evidence is that the human entrada into Australia occurred so much longer ago than that of the Americas. Most scholars agree that humans reached the Australian continent at least as long as 50,000 years ago; but evidence is sparse, and radiocarbon dating ineffective for dates older than 50,000 years old. Genyornis newtoni, Zygomaturus, Protemnodon, sthenurine kangaroos and T. carnifex all disappeared at or shortly after the human occupation of the Australian mainland. Twenty or more genera of giant marsupials, monotremes, birds, and reptiles were likely wiped out due to the direct intervention of human populations since they can find no connection to climate change. The local decline in diversity began nearly 75,000 years before human colonization, and thus cannot be the result of human intervention. South America Less scholarly research concerning the mass extinctions in South America has been published, at least in the English-language academic press. However, recent investigations suggest that the extinction intensity and timing varied across the South American continent, beginning in the northern latitudes several thousand years before the human occupation, but becoming more intense and rapid in the southern higher latitudes, after humans arrived. Further, the pace of extinction seems to have accelerated about 1,000 years after the humans arrived, coinciding with regional cold reversals, the South American equivalent of Younger Dryas. Some scholars have noted patterns of stadial/interstadial differences between North and South America, and have concluded that although there is no evidence for the blitzkrieg model—that is to say, mass-killing by humans--the human presence in combination with the rapid expansion of forests and environmental changes seems to have led to the collapse of the megafaunal ecosystem within a few hundred years. Earliest human colonization: 14,500 cal BP (Monte Verde, Chile)Last glacial maximum: 12,500-11,800 cal BP, in PatagoniaCold Reversal (Roughly equivalent to the Younger Dryas): 15,500-11,800 cal BP (Varies across the continent)Important sites: Lapa da Escrivà ¢nia 5(Brazil), Campo La Borde (Argentina), Monte Verde (Chile), Pedra Pintada (Brazil), Cueva del Milodà ³n, Fells Cave (Patagonia)Die-off: 18,000 to 11,000 cal BPSpecies: 52 genera or 83% of all megafauna; Holmesina, Glyptodon, Haplomastodon, prior to human colonization; Cuvieronius, Gomphotheres, Glossotherium, Equus, Hippidion, Mylodon, Eremotherium and Toxodon about 1,000 years after initial human colonization; Smilodon, Catonyx, Megatherium, and Doedicurus, late Holocene Recently, evidence of the survival of several species of giant ground sloth has been discovered in the West Indies, to as late as 5,000 years ago, coincident with the arrival of humans in the region. Selected Sources Barnosky, Anthony D., et al. Variable Impact of Late-Quaternary Megafaunal Extinction in Causing Ecological State Shifts in North and South America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113.4 (2016): 856–61.  DeSantis, Larisa R. G., et al. Dietary Responses of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia–New Guinea) Megafauna to Climate and Environmental Change. Paleobiology 43.2 (2017): 181–95.  Galetti, Mauro, et al. Ecological and Evolutionary Legacy of Megafauna Extinctions. Biological Reviews 93.2 (2018): 845–62.  Metcalf, Jessica L., et al. Synergistic Roles of Climate Warming and Human Occupation in Patagonian Megafaunal Extinctions During the Last Deglaciation. Science Advances 2.6 (2016).  Rabanus-Wallace, M. Timothy, et al. Megafaunal Isotopes Reveal Role of Increased Moisture on Rangeland During Late Pleistocene Extinctions. Nature Ecology Evolution 1 (2017): 0125.  Tà ³th, Anikà ³ B., et al. Reorganization of Surviving Mammal Communitie s after the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction. Science 365.6459 (2019): 1305–08.  van der Kaars, Sander, et al. Humans Rather Than Climate the Primary Cause of Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction in Australia. Nature Communications 8 (2017): 14142.

The Role Of Women In Female Fences, By August Wilson

Female Fences Fences took place in the 1950’s, during that time the role of women in the 1950 was repressive and constrictive in a lot of ways. The 1950s is often viewed as a period of conformity, when both men and women observed strict gender roles and complied with society’s expectations (Women in 1950’s). Society placed a very high significance on different expectations on behavior in public as well as at home. Women were to be homemakers, caring mothers, and to be an obedient wife to their husbands. A wife was only considered a â€Å"good wife† if she did anything and everything her husband asked for and agreed with everything the man would say. This was the type of way Troy treated Rose in fences and how he thought of women and their†¦show more content†¦Wilson shows his audience two ways he portrays women throughout the play and he stressed the significance of their roles in that time period. August Wilson made his audience aware of the issues blacks were going through during that time period. For instance, Wilson shows the struggle Troy has with allowing his son Corey to play sports and get recruited. Troy goes on to say â€Å"I decided seventeen years ago that boy wasn’t getting involved in no sports. Not after what they did to me in the sports† (Wilson 1.3.111). Troy is referring to how the whites would not let him play in the major league because of his skin color and he believes they will do the same to Corey. Wilson expresses another theme of color discrimination when Troy talks to Bono about how only whites drive the garbage trucks while the coloreds do the picking. Troy states, â€Å"†¦Why? Why you got the white men driving and the colored lifting? †¦ What’s the matter, don’t I count? You think only white fellows got sense enough to drive a truck†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Wilson 1.1.10). This was a big problem for many companies in the 1950’s the African Americans played minor roles at the time only whites held the special privilege jobs. Many black men like Troy just wanted a change they wanted equal job opportunities like the white men were getting. If a female was to rewrite this play she would have to change the focus of the play. In theShow MoreRelatedTheme Of Women In Fences1739 Words   |  7 PagesGarcia English 2 Professor Spencer December 8, 2017 Sexuality and role of women in August Wilson’s Fences In the film Fences by August Wilson, the audience is presented with a country that is fast evolving, with oppression, prejudice, and poverty remaining a common factor. 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Puts hersel f aside for everyoneRead MoreFeminist Criticism In August Wilsons Fences732 Words   |  3 PagesWithin August Wilson’s Fences, the conflict between the authority figures within the Maxson household was prevalent. At this time in history, misogyny was widespread, and men typically held a large majority of the authority positions in society. Some scenes from Wilson’s Fences would include times in which Troy Maxson would depict seemingly oppressive authority over his family members. Troy often acted in a rather arrogant manner, which contributed to the strong sense of patriarchy that was presentRead MoreAnalysis Of The Of A Salesman And Millers And Williams Plays1102 Words   |  5 PagesThe playwrights we discussed after Tennessee Williams have adapted disparate elements of postmodernism to undermine the modernist assumptions undergirding O’Neill’s, Glaspell’s, Wilder’s, Miller’s and Williams’ plays. 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To support my interpretation, the women in the play were homebodies, just worrying about the household because theyRead MoreMasculinity And Self Determination And Aggression1445 Words   |  6 PagesMasculinity can be described as a set of attitudes, roles or traits related to men. It develops by the social and biological parameters and factors. However, it could be exhibited by males as well as females, depending upon the development of masculine traits in them. The main characteristics of masculinity include bravery, impartiality, freedom, and firmness which depend upon the locality and background of the individual, as well as the community and traditions. An extremism of negative traits ofRead MoreThe Roles Of Black Men In Fences By August Wilson908 Words   |  4 PagesAs the roles of black men begin to evolve during the post-slavery time period, women’s roles remained unchanged. In this case, in August Wilson’s play Fences, Wilson’s perspective on gender roles explains the traditions of both men and women, the oppression and objectification of women, and the social roles. For instance, â€Å"Indeed, Wilson’s perspective on responsibility might appear dubious to those unfamiliar with his decidedly male ethos, which he links to the history of black male-female relationsRead MoreAnalysis of Plays, Fences and A Raisin in the Sun Essay2025 Words   |  9 PagesJose Morales English 164 Dr. Kidd 08/03/2012 â€Å"Fences† and â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† Plays, â€Å"Fences† and â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† share similar plots. They take place in the mid-western United States in the 1950’s and explore the family dynamics of the African-American Family and the paradigmatic shift it experienced between two generations. 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Organizational Behavior for Sustaining - myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theOrganizational Behavior for Creating and Sustaining. Answer: Motivation Motivation can be defined as the reason one holds to do a certain task allocated to them, or behave in a particular manner (Reeve, 2014). For the success of an organization, motivation of the workers has to be factor for consideration in decisions making. Most of the United Kingdom companies consider workers motivation as a key factor in the attainment of their goals. The United Kingdom best work places give a great attention to workers motivation. They include; Foundation SP, Amoria Bond, impact international, Saleforce UK, softcatPLc etc. These companies motivate their customers by offering free meals, paid day care services, recognizing their employees, assigning responsibilities to their workers, paying their workers good salary, giving their workers enough time off and giving a first priority to workers safety at the work place (Olafsen et al., 2015). On the list of the best places to work in UK lies Baringa partiers which offers good remuneration for their workers. Adecco considers workers feel recognized by giving them responsibilities. Workers in these companies do their best so as to improve the companys performance in the highly competitive market. Some companies have considered motivation as their traditional practice. group behavior and team work. Elements of a successful team and their effects to team performance. A successful team should be small and be constituted of consistent members. These elements are necessary for effective team work. They facilitate the effectiveness of a team. A team with consistent membership usually performs better than that which lacks consistency in its membership. Conditions necessary for effective team. The following conditions are necessary for effective team; The team should have a clear motive and a clear goal. The system should have laid down frameworks to motivate its workers. The team should be composed of members who are competent in both technical skills and interpersonal skills. The team should have effective communication so as to prevent information breakdown which may lead to misunderstanding and quarrels. How to avoid team challenges For the team to avoid the problems identified, I would unsure there is a clear and non-interrupted channel of communication that creates a healthy community. This will facilitates the flow of information in an organization. Creating trust among the members of a group should be key. This can be done by acting as the trust, showing the initial enthusiastic and being predicable. The group can be broken into individual accountability by assigning different roles to individual members of the team. leadership Difference between trait and behavioral theories of leadership Trait theory argues that individuals possess certain characteristics that are attractive to other people that make them good leaders. It holds that leaders are born while behavioral theory argues that leaders have one or several different ways in which they stand distinct (Dinh et al., 2014). These theories are valid in various accounts i.e. most leaders possess distinct traits that make them stand out and run the organizations responsibility. How can organization select and develop effective leader? Success in an organization takes hard work, effective team leadership and a good discipline (Dinh et al., 2014). Most organizations use the following leadership success traits. A leader who is able to adapt fast to a situation will also be able to lead the team members to adopt fast too. A leader with good communication skills is able to give instructions and listen to the employees plea. Ability to build relation Employees should have unweaving trust on their leader so as to exceed the employers expectation on their performance. Ability to develop and develop others A leader should be willing to learn from others and nature the employees talent. Power and politics Delegate power or keep it close How to prioritize the projects to delegate Samantha Park should identify the task of high priority and avoid delegating it due to the sensitivity of the decisions made to the organization. Samantha Park can deal with the concern by building trust in those whom he hires, this will help in the motivation of the employee and improve their performance. The executive should not control project so as to maintain their position in authority. They have the right and the responsibility to overlook and the important decisions since they are held accountable of the organizations functions (Camm, 2013). The top leadership should never delegate the following tasks in an organization. Any decision that affects the entire organization. The overall responsibility of an organization Praise and discipline of the employees. Organisational changes Sustaining innovations These are innovations that improve the existing products rather than creating a new product (Christensen, and Raynor, 2013). Examples of sustaining innovations include; Steel company begun by producing low cost low quality products but with the prevailing improvement in technology, the company has improved its products with time hence producing products such as rebar and sheet steel. Pfizer is the world largest pharmaceutical company by revenues. The company was found in 1849, it has augmented its research by building its brads, pipeline, and profits through major acquisitions. Nokia, an electronics producing company started by producing low quality phones. But with the improvement in technology it has produced high quality phones which are relevant to the prevailing market status. Disruptive innovations These are innovations that help a company in creating new products that completely change the market (Nagy, Schuessler, and Dubinsky, 2016). Examples of disruptive innovations include; When Apple Company introduced iPad in the market, the company created a new market and attracted many customers worldwide to their new product other than softwares they used to produce. Bosch company, a U.S.A based company founded in 1889 is transforming itself into service providing company whose brands can be used in fast-changing industries. Gaming Superstar NVidia established its foothold in automobiles by building the user interface connected cars. But they have recently developed software that autonomous car operates in. The innovations are beneficial and they lead to high quality goods and services. People can now access high quality commodities with ease. References Camm, T.W., 2013. Power and politics in organizations. Christensen, C. and Raynor, M., 2013. The innovator's solution: Creating and sustaining successful growth. Harvard Business Review Press. Dinh, J.E., Lord, R.G., Gardner, W.L., Meuser, J.D., Liden, R.C. and Hu, J., 2014. Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), pp.36-62. Nagy, D., Schuessler, J. and Dubinsky, A., 2016. Defining and identifying disruptive innovations. Industrial Marketing Management, 57, pp.119-126. Olafsen, A.H., Halvari, H., Forest, J. and Deci, E.L., 2015. Show them the money? The role of pay, managerial need support, and justice in a self?determination theory model of intrinsic work motivation. Scandinavian journal of psychology, 56(4), pp.447-457. Reeve, J., 2014. Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley Sons.